Over the past few decades, China has emerged as a significant player in the global arms market, leveraging its growing military-industrial complex to export defense systems to countries across Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Despite these gains, a combination of quality concerns and the political ambitions tied to China’s defense exports presents ongoing challenges for the country’s expanding influence in the global arms trade.
China’s journey to becoming a defense export powerhouse began in the mid-20th century. Initially, China’s defense industry was heavily dependent on foreign technology and imports, primarily from the Soviet Union. The early attempts to build a self-reliant defense industry were often characterized by reverse-engineering foreign systems, especially Soviet equipment. However, the disruptions caused by the Cultural Revolution and the subsequent breakdown of Sino-Soviet relations stunted early progress, leading to significant underfunding, quality control issues, and long research and development (R&D) times.
This began to change in the 1990s when China’s political and military leadership grew frustrated with the defense sector’s inability to produce competitive, world-class products. As a result, the Chinese government initiated sweeping reforms aimed at modernizing the industry. This set the stage for China’s transformation into one of the world’s top arms exporters, with a robust domestic defense manufacturing base that rivals other global players.
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), China is now the fourth-largest arms exporter globally, accounting for 5.8% of the global defense export market between 2019 and 2023. Its defense exports reached more than 40 countries during this period, with the majority of these sales concentrated in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Thailand.
China’s defense exports are dominated by state-owned conglomerates, with six Chinese companies ranked in SIPRI’s top 20 arms-producing firms in 2022. Three of these companies—China North Industries Group Corporation (Norinco), Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC), and China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC)—are even ranked among the top ten globally. These companies produce a wide range of military equipment, from fighter jets and tanks to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and naval platforms.
One of China’s most notable export successes has been the JF-17 Thunder, a multirole fighter jet jointly developed with Pakistan. The collaboration between AVIC’s Chengdu Aircraft Corporation and Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) has allowed Pakistan to field a capable combat aircraft that is increasingly seen as a cost-effective alternative to Western jets like the F-16. The JF-17 has been exported to countries such as Nigeria and Myanmar, with Azerbaijan and Iran expressing interest in the aircraft. The success of this platform reflects China’s ability to offer relatively advanced technology at competitive prices.
Another area where China has excelled is in the export of UAVs. SIPRI data shows that between 2013 and 2023, Chinese manufacturers delivered over 280 armed UAVs to 17 countries, including Egypt, Iraq, and Pakistan. By contrast, the United States delivered only 12 during the same period. China’s leading UAVs, such as CASC’s Cai Hong-4 (CH-4) and Cai Hong-5 (CH-5), have gained popularity due to their affordability and effectiveness in various roles, from intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions to strike capabilities.
For instance, the CH-4 has been a major success, securing follow-on orders from multiple countries. It has been deployed in conflicts in the Middle East and Africa, though some users, like Iraq, have faced maintenance challenges, illustrating the dual-edged nature of China’s defense export strategy—affordability often comes at the expense of long-term reliability and support.
China’s defense exports are not purely a commercial venture. They are also closely intertwined with the country’s broader political and strategic objectives. The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a cornerstone of China’s foreign policy, often serves as a conduit for arms sales. Countries that participate in BRI projects frequently become recipients of Chinese military hardware, which helps China deepen its influence in strategic regions such as Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.
For example, China has strengthened its defense ties with Pakistan, one of its closest allies, by providing advanced military hardware like submarines, fighter jets, and naval vessels. This relationship not only helps Pakistan bolster its military capabilities vis-à-vis India but also serves China’s strategic interest in counterbalancing Indian influence in South Asia.
Similarly, in Africa, Chinese arms exports have been used as a tool of diplomacy. Many African nations, such as Sudan and Zambia, have been recipients of Chinese military equipment. By offering affordable defense systems, China builds goodwill and strengthens diplomatic ties with these nations, while also gaining access to resources and infrastructure projects critical to its economic ambitions.
While China’s defense exports have grown significantly, concerns over the quality of its products persist. Reports of technical issues, poor after-sales support, and maintenance problems have surfaced from various customer nations. Iraq, for instance, put its CH-4 UAVs into storage after encountering maintenance challenges, and only one of the ten UAVs was reported to be fully operational by 2019. Similarly, Pakistan has faced delays and technical issues with the delivery of some Chinese defense equipment.
These issues highlight a fundamental trade-off in China’s arms export strategy: while Chinese defense products are typically much cheaper than their Western counterparts, they often suffer from lower quality standards. This trade-off can lead to dissatisfaction among buyers, particularly those seeking long-term reliability and robust after-sales support.
Moreover, China’s willingness to sell advanced military systems to nations embroiled in conflict or those with questionable human rights records has raised concerns in the international community. Chinese weapons have been used in conflicts in the Middle East, Africa, and Southeast Asia, sometimes leading to criticism that China is fueling instability in these regions.
In addition to aerial platforms, China has also made significant inroads into the global market for naval vessels and ground vehicles. Pakistan, Thailand, and Bangladesh have been key recipients of Chinese naval systems, such as submarines and frigates. For example, Pakistan has ordered eight S20 diesel-electric submarines from China, with deliveries starting in 2022. The first four submarines are being built in China, while the remaining four will be constructed in Pakistan, further strengthening the strategic partnership between the two countries.
China has also delivered advanced surface combatants to Pakistan, including the Type 054A/P frigates, which are among the most sophisticated warships that China has ever exported. These frigates are equipped with advanced anti-aircraft and anti-submarine systems, enhancing Pakistan’s naval capabilities.
On the ground forces side, China has supplied main battle tanks (MBTs) and armored personnel carriers (APCs) to several countries, with Thailand and Bangladesh being major recipients. The Norinco VT-4 MBT and VN-1 APC have been delivered to Thailand, while Bangladesh has acquired the Norinco VT-5 light tank, marking the type’s first export success.
China’s defense export strategy is marked by a delicate balancing act between political, economic, and military objectives. On the one hand, China offers affordable and technologically capable systems that appeal to countries looking to modernize their armed forces without paying the high prices associated with Western or Russian equipment. This pricing advantage allows China to penetrate markets in developing nations that may not have the budget for more expensive alternatives.
On the other hand, the recurring quality and reliability issues that have plagued some of China’s defense exports threaten to undermine the long-term prospects of its arms trade. While some countries are willing to accept these trade-offs in exchange for lower costs and political support from Beijing, others may be deterred by the risks associated with inferior quality.
Furthermore, China’s willingness to use arms sales as a tool of political influence can create conflicts with potential customers. Some nations may be wary of becoming too dependent on Chinese military hardware, fearing that Beijing could use this leverage to exert political pressure in the future.
Looking ahead, China’s defense exports are expected to continue growing, driven by the country’s expanding technological capabilities and its strategic ambitions. However, the path forward will not be without challenges. To solidify its position as a global arms exporter, China will need to address the quality concerns that have plagued its products and offer more robust after-sales support to its customers.
Moreover, as China seeks to expand its customer base, it will need to navigate the complex web of international politics and regional conflicts that often accompany arms sales. Balancing its political ambitions with the need to maintain credibility as a reliable arms supplier will be key to the future success of China’s defense exports.
China’s defense industry has made remarkable strides in recent decades, becoming a major player in the global arms market. However, the country’s export ambitions are tempered by ongoing concerns over quality and the political objectives that often accompany its arms sales. As China continues to expand its influence through defense exports, it will need to address these challenges to sustain its growth and reputation in the global arms trade.
