China, the world’s most populous nation, is strategically advancing its global ambitions through a blend of land and sea strategies that leverage civilian forces in support of military objectives. These efforts are part of a broader goal to expand territory and increase trade dominance without engaging in direct conflict. By employing a range of nontraditional methods, China seeks to assert its claims and enhance its influence, using civilian forces as a key component of its military strategy.
China’s approach to expansion has increasingly involved the integration of civilian forces into its military operations, a concept formalized under the “military-civil fusion” strategy. This strategy, emphasized under President Xi Jinping’s leadership, aims to blur the lines between civilian and military sectors, enabling the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to pursue national objectives with greater flexibility and deniability.
One of the key aspects of this strategy is the use of civilian forces as indirect support for military operations. These forces, often comprising civilians in strategic regions, serve as both a shield and a support system for the People’s Liberation Army (PLA). By embedding military capabilities within civilian populations, China reduces the likelihood of provoking direct military responses from other nations while steadily advancing its territorial claims.
A prominent example of China’s use of civilian forces can be seen along its land borders, particularly in the contested regions along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) with India. In these areas, China has implemented the “Xiaokang” border defense village initiative, a project designed to populate and fortify border regions with loyal civilians.
The term “Xiaokang” translates to “moderately prosperous” and reflects China’s ambition to develop border regions through the construction of new villages, infrastructure, and public services. These villages are strategically located in disputed areas along the LAC, particularly in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR). Over the past five years, China has constructed more than 600 such villages, including those in the Nyingchi, Shannan, Shigatse, and Ngari prefectures.
The Xiaokang initiative is a key component of China’s military-civil fusion strategy, as it involves the deliberate settlement of civilians in areas of strategic importance. These civilians, often loyal to the CCP, serve as a human presence that bolsters China’s territorial claims. By establishing a “settled population” in disputed regions, China strengthens its position in territorial disputes, particularly in areas like Arunachal Pradesh, which is administered by India but claimed by China as “South Tibet.”
While ostensibly civilian, the Xiaokang villages are often equipped with dual-use infrastructure that can support military operations. These villages are connected by an extensive network of roads, many of which lead to remote and disputed border areas. These roads not only facilitate civilian movement but also enable the rapid deployment of troops and military equipment in the event of a conflict.
Satellite imagery has revealed the presence of military and dual-use facilities within these villages, including barracks, perimeter walls, and communication towers. These facilities suggest a close integration between civilian and military functions, with the villages potentially serving as forward posts for the PLA. The presence of the People’s Armed Police (PAP), a paramilitary force responsible for border security, further underscores the dual-purpose nature of these settlements.
The Xiaokang villages, with their strategic locations and dual-use infrastructure, are a clear example of China’s use of “Gray Zone” tactics—actions that fall below the threshold of armed conflict but serve to advance strategic objectives. By embedding military capabilities within civilian populations, China is able to assert its territorial claims while minimizing the risk of escalation.
China’s use of civilian forces is not limited to its land borders; it also extends to its maritime ambitions, particularly in the South China Sea. Here, China employs its Maritime Militia, a fleet of ostensibly civilian vessels that support the PLA in asserting territorial claims and securing maritime resources.
The Maritime Militia, often described as a “shadowy armada,” consists of fishing vessels that have been militarized and equipped with advanced technology. These vessels operate independently of the PLA Navy and the China Coast Guard (CCG), but they are trained and coordinated by these military forces. The militia plays a crucial role in China’s efforts to enforce its expansive maritime claims, which include the majority of the South China Sea—a region rich in natural resources and strategic shipping lanes.
The Maritime Militia is composed of two main fleets: the Professional Fleet and the Spratly Backbone Fishing Vessels (SBFV). The Professional Fleet consists of at least 100 purpose-built vessels that appear to be fishing boats but are designed for military use. These vessels are stronger and better equipped than typical fishing boats and are capable of carrying out a range of military tasks, including surveillance, reconnaissance, and support for naval operations.
The SBFV, on the other hand, consists of actual fishing vessels that have been drafted into China’s maritime missions. These boats operate primarily out of ports in Hainan and Guangdong and are often deployed to disputed areas in the South China Sea. Crews of the SBFV receive government subsidies and training, making them an effective and loyal component of China’s maritime strategy.
The Maritime Militia plays a key role in China’s “Gray Zone” operations in the South China Sea. By deploying these civilian vessels in disputed areas, China is able to assert its claims without resorting to open conflict. The presence of the Maritime Militia in these waters complicates the situation for other nations, as the vessels are ostensibly civilian and any aggressive action against them could be framed as an attack on civilians.
This tactic allows China to challenge international norms, particularly the principle of freedom of navigation, which is upheld by the United States and other nations. By deploying the Maritime Militia in disputed areas, China seeks to establish de facto control over these waters, securing vital resources and expanding its economic influence.
The United States and other countries have repeatedly criticized China’s use of the Maritime Militia, accusing it of violating international law and destabilizing the region. Despite these criticisms, China has continued to expand and professionalize its Maritime Militia, making it a central component of its maritime strategy.
China’s use of civilian forces in support of military objectives has significant implications for regional and global security. By embedding military capabilities within civilian populations, China is able to advance its territorial ambitions while minimizing the risk of direct conflict. This approach challenges the traditional understanding of military power and poses a unique threat to international norms and stability.
The Xiaokang villages along China’s land borders and the Maritime Militia in the South China Sea are clear examples of this strategy in action. Both initiatives are part of China’s broader goal to expand its influence and secure its interests without provoking direct military responses from other nations. By integrating civilian forces into its military strategy, China is able to pursue its objectives with greater flexibility and deniability, making it a formidable challenge for other countries.
As China continues to rise as a global power, its use of civilian forces in support of military objectives is likely to become increasingly prominent. The Xiaokang border defense villages and the Maritime Militia represent a new kind of military strategy—one that blurs the lines between civilian and military sectors and leverages the strengths of both.
This strategy has already proven effective in advancing China’s territorial claims and securing its interests in key regions. However, it also raises significant concerns about the future of regional and global security. As other nations respond to China’s actions, the potential for conflict remains, even as China seeks to avoid direct military confrontation.
The international community will need to carefully navigate this complex landscape, balancing the need to uphold international norms and the principle of sovereignty with the realities of China’s unconventional military strategy. How this balance is struck will have profound implications for the future of global security and the stability of key regions like the Indo-Pacific.
As China continues to refine and expand its use of civilian forces in military operations, understanding and responding to this strategy will be a critical challenge for policymakers, military leaders, and international organizations alike.
